The European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a medium-sized songbird native to Europe and parts of Asia. Introduced to North America in the late 1800s, it has become one of the most numerous and widespread birds on the continent. The European Starling is an opportunistic omnivore that has adapted readily to living alongside humans in urban and agricultural areas. But like any animal, European Starlings are also prey for a number of natural predators. This article will explore the various animals that prey on European Starlings throughout their range.
Predators in the Nest
European Starlings nest in cavities, including natural tree hollows and holes in human structures like building eaves, bridges, and nest boxes. As with any bird species that nests in cavities, European Starling eggs and nestlings are vulnerable to predators that can access the nest site. These nest predators include:
Snakes
Snakes are able to enter nest cavities and consume eggs and nestling birds. Rat snakes and other colubrids are known to take starling nestlings.
Tree squirrels
Tree squirrels such as grays, reds, and fox squirrels will raid bird nests for eggs and young nestlings, including those of European Starlings. Their flexibility and persistence allows them to access nests in tree holes, building crevices, and nest boxes.
Woodpeckers
Woodpeckers like the northern flicker excavate their own nest cavities but will also sometimes usurp existing holes, piercing or destroying any eggs or killing nestlings inside starling nests.
Other cavity nesters
Other bird species that use similar cavity nest sites, including woodpeckers, bluebirds, swallows, and owls, may compete with starlings for nesting sites and even destroy starling nests and eggs. European Starlings have been known to take over the nest sites of native cavity nesters.
Climbing mammals
Raccoons, weasels, martens, and other nimble mammals that can climb or fit into tight spaces may also raid nest cavities and feed on eggs and nestlings.
Predators of Adult European Starlings
Once European Starlings fledge and leave the nest, they face a new suite of predators trying to prey on adults and juvenile birds. Raptors are among the most significant predators of adult starlings.
Falcons
Peregrine falcons and merlins are adept at catching fast-flying starlings in mid-air. Other falcon species like the American kestrel prey regularly on starlings as well. In fact, European Starlings often represent a majority of the prey remains that are found at peregrine falcon nest sites.
Falcon Species | Regions |
---|---|
Peregrine falcon | North America, Europe, Asia |
Merlin | North America, Europe, Asia |
American kestrel | North America |
Eurasian hobby | Europe, Asia, Africa |
Hawks
The accipiters are especially adept bird hunters. The northern goshawk, Cooper’s hawk, and sharp-shinned hawk all prey regularly on European Starlings found in their range. The larger buteos such as red-tailed hawks also opportunistically grab starlings when able.
Hawk Species | Regions |
---|---|
Northern goshawk | North America, Europe, Asia |
Cooper’s hawk | North America |
Sharp-shinned hawk | North America, South America |
Red-tailed hawk | North America |
Common buzzard | Europe, Asia, Africa |
Owls
Like diurnal raptors, many species of owls prey regularly on starlings. The smaller owl species like eastern screech owls and northern saw-whet owls take starlings more often in winter when other prey may be scarce. Larger owls like great horned owls and barred owls kill and eat starlings year-round.
Owl Species | Regions |
---|---|
Eastern screech owl | North America |
Great horned owl | North America |
Snowy owl | North America, Europe, Asia |
Northern saw-whet owl | North America |
Long-eared owl | North America, Europe, Asia |
Mammalian Predators
In addition to predatory birds, a variety of mammal species prey on European Starlings when the opportunity arises.
Foxes
Foxes, including the red fox and gray fox, are opportunistic predators that will readily catch and eat starlings found on the ground or in vegetation.
Coyotes
As an adaptable opportunistic predator, coyotes consume a wide variety of small prey, including European Starlings.
Raccoons
Raccoons utilize a wide range of food sources. Their hand-like paws allow them to catch and handle starlings effectively.
Domestic cats
Free-roaming domestic cats kill billions of birds each year. Agile pet cats are very effective at catching unwary starlings, particularly fledglings.
Rats
Large rats like the brown rat and black rat are able to overpower smaller bird prey like European Starlings, especially juveniles.
Mammalian Predator | Regions |
---|---|
Red fox | North America, Europe, Asia, North Africa |
Gray fox | North America |
Coyote | North America |
Raccoon | North America |
Domestic cat | Worldwide |
Brown rat | Worldwide |
Reptilian and Amphibian Predators
Reptiles and amphibians also consume European Starlings when given the chance.
Snakes
Snakes like rat snakes, kingsnakes, and racers that feed on birds and small mammals will prey on starlings.
Lizards
Larger lizard species may opportunistically feed on small starlings, especially juveniles. Monitor lizards in particular are known to consume birds.
Large frogs and toads
Very large frog and toad species are capable of catching and consuming smaller starling prey.
Reptile/Amphibian | Regions |
---|---|
Rat snake | North America |
Kingsnake | North America |
Racer | North America |
Monitor lizard | Africa, Asia, Europe |
Cane toad | Americas, Australia |
Other Predators
A few other predator groups will also occasionally consume European Starlings.
Large fish
Large predatory fish found in areas where starlings feed, like trout or pike, may occasionally catch and eat starlings on the water surface.
Spiders and scorpions
Very large spiders and scorpions in tropical regions may take small starlings as prey.
Hymenopterans
Giant hornets in Asia along with other wasp species have been observed preying on European Starlings, typically juveniles or injured adults.
Other Predator | Region |
---|---|
Brown trout | Europe, Asia, North America |
Northern pike | Europe, Asia, North America |
Giant hornet | Asia |
Defense Against Predators
European Starlings have a number of adaptations and behaviors that help protect them against the many predators trying to eat them:
– Nesting in cavities inaccessible to many predators
– Nesting in colonies that have multiple birds on watch
– Being active and vocal to deter nest predators
– Strong odors from adults and nests may deter predators
– Alarm calls warn others of potential threats
– Gregarious flocking behavior provides safety in numbers
– Swift and maneuverable flight escapes aerial predators
Conclusion
Due to its widespread abundance and high numbers, the European Starling provides an important food source for a diverse array of predatory birds, mammals, reptiles, and other predators. Predation helps regulate starling populations and prevents overpopulation in new habitats. The starling’s status as a common and prolific introduced species makes it an important dietary component for many native predator species. Though it competes with native birds, its abundance as prey helps sustain predators that also feed on local species. Understanding the complex relationships between introduced prey species like the European Starling and native predators can provide important insights for conservation and management.