The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a medium-sized songbird that is native to Europe and parts of Asia. However, it has been introduced to many other parts of the world, including North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Fiji. The European starling is known for its dark, iridescent plumage and ability to mimic sounds and human speech. But how did this bird end up becoming so widespread globally? What is the history behind the European starling and how it spread around the world?
Origins and Native Range
The European starling is native to Europe and parts of western Asia. Its natural range stretches from Great Britain and Portugal in the west to central Siberia in the east. It is found throughout much of this region, inhabiting a variety of open and semi-open habitats including farmland, grasslands, urban areas, and woodland edges.
The oldest known fossil evidence of the European starling dates back to the Early Pleistocene period around 2 million years ago. Genetic studies suggest the starling likely originated around this time during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs when glacial and interglacial periods were changing the landscape of Eurasia. The alternating cycles of cold glacial and warmer interglacial periods led to shifts between steppe-tundra habitat and forested areas, which may have driven speciation in the common ancestor of starlings and other related birds in the genus Sturnus.
Ancient History
References to starlings date back centuries in European literature and culture. Pliny the Elder wrote about starlings in his 1st century CE Roman encyclopedia Naturalis Historia. Aristophanes and Virgil also mention starlings in their classical Greek and Latin writings. Shakespeare refers to starlings in Henry IV, writing “I’ll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but ‘Mortimer.‘” This reflects how European starlings have long been kept as cage birds and taught to mimic speech.
Medieval and Renaissance Periods
During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, European starlings appear in paintings, literature, and poetry. They were kept as pets by the wealthy due to their ability to mimic sounds and human speech. Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli wrote poems about his pet starling in the late 1800s. European starlings were also associated with Christmas traditions and nativity scenes. Books published in the 1500s provide advice on trapping and keeping starlings as pets.
Introduction to North America
The European starling was first introduced to North America in the 1890s in what was one of the earliest and most famous cases of biological invasion caused by humans. In 1890, a New York pharmaceutical manufacturer named Eugene Schieffelin embarked on a mission to introduce all the birds mentioned in the works of Shakespeare to the United States.
The American Acclimatization Society
Schieffelin was the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, founded in 1871, which aimed to introduce European flora and fauna to North America for cultural and nostalgic purposes. Releasing the Shakespearean birds was part of this mission.
First Introduction in Central Park
In March 1890, Schieffelin released around 100 European starlings in Central Park in New York City. He released another 40 birds in 1891. These starlings are the ancestors of the approximately 200 million European starlings found across North America today.
Rapid Spread Across the Continent
Following Schieffelin’s introductions, the starling population grew rapidly across North America due to several factors:
- Abundant food sources from agriculture and human settlements
- Nesting cavities in man-made structures
- Lack of native competitors and predators
The starling had expanded its range to the Mississippi River by 1910 and the West Coast by 1942. By 1987, starlings had spread across Alaska and down to Mexico. Currently, starlings are found across the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Starlings have thrived in human-altered habitats.
Impact in North America
The introduction and spread of the European starling in North America has had broad ecological, economic, and cultural impacts.
Ecological Impacts
The European starling competes with native bird species for food and nesting sites. Research shows starlings have contributed to the declines of native cavity-nesting birds including bluebirds, woodpeckers, and purple martins. Starlings often evict native birds from their nesting cavities. Their large flocks also discourage native birds from using bird feeders. However, some studies suggest their impact may not be as severe as once thought.
Agricultural Damage
European starlings damage crops by eating planted seeds, fruits, and breaking plants. Starlings cost the agriculture industry an estimated $800 million per year in damage in the United States according to a report from Cornell University. Their large winter flocks concentrate damage locally with favors fruits and grains.
Aircraft Hazards
Starling flocks pose a hazard to aircraft. Collisions between birds and planes causes billions in damages each year in the US. From 1990 to 2010, starlings ranked third for wildlife strikes with aircraft behind deer and waterfowl. Over 250 people have died due to bird strikes.
Positive Impacts
While the European starling is considered an invasive pest, some groups admire starlings for their attractive plumage, complex vocalizations, and flight patterns. The starling’s ability to thrive among humans makes it one of the most common birds that people encounter in daily life. Starlings help control insect pests and can contribute to seed dispersal of some native plants.
Range Expansion Beyond North America
Beyond North America, European starlings have been introduced widely across the Southern Hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, and the Falkland Islands.
Australia
Starlings were brought to Australia in the mid-1800s for similar cultural reasons as North America. Acclimatization societies released starlings around Melbourne and Sydney. Starlings are now found across eastern Australia, southwestern Australia, and Tasmania. As in North America, they compete with native birds and cause agricultural damage. However, some Australians have embraced starlings as a familiar cultural reminder of Europe.
New Zealand
Starlings were introduced multiple times to New Zealand beginning in the 1860s and became successfully established by the early 1900s. Within 50 years they had spread across the main islands. Starlings are now abundant throughout New Zealand including on offshore islands. They disrupt native bird nesting and compete for food sources.
South Africa
Starlings were brought to South Africa in the late 1890s and spread across the country, except for arid areas, within 50 years. As in other regions, they compete with native birds and consume cultivated fruits. The government even placed a bounty on starlings from 1913-1917 in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce populations.
South America
Starlings were brought to Argentina around 1870 and have spread across most of the country. They were introduced to the Falkland Islands around 1870 as well and occur on both East and West Falkland. Small populations occur in Uruguay and Chile. However, the hot climate has limited their success in most parts of South America.
Habitat and Diet
The European starling has been able to successfully spread around the world due to its ability to occupy a wide range of habitats and adapt its diet.
Diverse Habitats
European starlings occupy many open and semi-open habitats across their native and introduced ranges including:
- Farmland and pastures
- Grasslands
- Urban parks and city centers
- Suburban neighborhoods
- Wetlands
- Coastal habitats
- Alpine meadows
They nest in tree cavities, man-made structures, and cliff crevices. This diversity of nesting and foraging sites lets them thrive across so many regions.
Varied Diet
European starlings are omnivorous and opportunistic foragers. Their diet includes:
- Insects and other invertebrates
- Seeds and grains
- Fruits and berries
- Nectar
- Human food waste from trash cans and landfills
This flexible, omnivorous diet allows starlings to adapt and take advantage of many food sources across their non-native ranges.
Current Status and Management
Today, the European starling remains one of the most numerous and successful bird species introduced by humans. Current status and management efforts include:
Current Global Population
The global population of European starlings is estimated to be around 610 million birds according to data from BirdLife International. Most live in Europe and Asia, but substantial populations occur on all continents thanks to introductions.
Status in Native Range
European starling populations in Europe have declined by around 13% since 1980, according to the IUCN Red List. Habitat loss from agricultural intensification is one contributing factor. However, starlings remain abundant and widespread across Europe into temperate Asia.
Status in Introduced Regions
In regions where they’ve been introduced like North America and Australia, starling populations remain abundant and even increasing in many areas. For example, Breeding Bird Survey Data in the US shows starling populations increased by around 2% per year from 1966 to 2019.
Management and Control
There have been many attempts to control and manage invasive starling populations with limited success. Techniques tried in various regions include:
- Nest box trapping
- Toxic baiting with DRC-1339
- Shooting and hunting
- Scaring and hazing
- Exclusion netting
While these techniques may work in small-scale settings like on farms or airports, reducing starling numbers is challenging across their extensive introduced ranges. More research is needed on potential biocontrol agents like contraceptives or disease. For now, starlings remain a ubiquitous presence in most settled areas outside of their native range in Eurasia.
Significance and Future Outlook
The introduction and spread of the European starling is a significant case study in invasion biology and impacts of introduced species. Key lessons and future questions include:
Human Transportation Can Spread Species Rapidly
The starling’s expansion clearly shows how human ships and wagons enabled the bird to cross oceans and spread rapidly in the span of decades. Other invasive species have spread along globalized trade routes. Humans must be aware of transporting pests.
Even Small Introductions Can Take Hold
The founding introductions of just 100-200 starlings in New York led to 200 million birds across North America today. A small number of individuals can be enough for an invasive species to gain a foothold. Prevention of introductions in the first place is crucial.
Invasive Species Management Is Challenging
While methods exist to control starlings in localized areas, reducing their numbers significantly across continents has not been achievable. Once an invasive species becomes widely established, eradication is unlikely.
Will Starling Ranges Continue Expanding?
While starlings now inhabit most temperate regions across the globe, whether they will adapt to spread into new areas is unknown. Researchers hypothesize climate change may allow them to expand farther north in latitude. Starlings have shown great adaptability to date.
Conclusion
The introduction of the European starling to new continents and regions around the globe stands as one of the most famous case studies of an invasive species spread by humans. Brought by acclimatization societies for cultural reasons in the 1800s, the starling’s subsequent rapid expansion and ecological impacts illustrate the power of human globalization to transport species and the challenge of managing invaders once established. The starling’s adaptability to habitats and diets have allowed it to flourish in areas outside its native European and Asian range. Two centuries after the starling first arrived in North America thanks to Eugene Schieffelin, it remains abundant across nearly the entire continent. While disliked by some as a pest, it has become incorporated into North American ecosystems and cultures. The starling’s population status in its native vs. introduced range highlights the differing outcomes between core and marginal populations. Going forward, the starling provides a classic example to revisit the unexpected and long-lasting effects that small introductions of non-native species can create.